Process Management

Process management is one of the core functions of an operating system, responsible for creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.

What is a Process?

A process is a program in execution. It is an active entity, unlike a program which is a passive entity stored on disk.

Process vs Program

Program	Process
Passive entity	Active entity
Stored on disk	Resides in memory
No resources allocated	Has allocated resources
Single copy	Multiple instances possible

Process Components

A process consists of:

Text Section - Program code
Data Section - Global variables
Heap - Dynamically allocated memory
Stack - Temporary data (function parameters, return addresses, local variables)
Program Counter (PC) - Address of next instruction
Registers - CPU register contents

Process Control Block (PCB)

The PCB is a data structure maintained by the OS for every process. It contains:

Field	Description
Process ID (PID)	Unique identifier
Process State	Current state of process
Program Counter	Next instruction address
CPU Registers	Register values
CPU Scheduling Info	Priority, pointers to scheduling queues
Memory Management Info	Page tables, segment tables
Accounting Info	CPU time used, time limits
I/O Status Info	List of open files, I/O devices

Process States

A process goes through various states during its lifecycle:

                    ┌──────────────┐
      admitted      │              │    exit
    ───────────────►│   RUNNING    ├──────────────►
                    │              │
                    └──────┬───────┘
                           │
           ┌───────────────┼───────────────┐
           │ interrupt     │  I/O or       │
           ▼               │  event wait   ▼
    ┌──────────────┐       │        ┌──────────────┐
    │              │       │        │              │
    │    READY     │◄──────┘        │   WAITING    │
    │              │                │              │
    └──────────────┘                └──────────────┘
           ▲        scheduler             │
           │        dispatch              │
           │                              │
           └──────────────────────────────┘
                   I/O or event completion

Five State Model

New - Process is being created
Ready - Process is waiting to be assigned to CPU
Running - Process is being executed
Waiting (Blocked) - Process is waiting for I/O or event
Terminated - Process has finished execution

Seven State Model (with Suspend)

Adds two more states for swapped processes: 6. Suspend Ready - Process swapped out but ready when brought in 7. Suspend Blocked - Process swapped out and waiting for event

Process Operations

Process Creation

Parent process creates child processes
Forms a process tree
Resource sharing options:
- Parent and child share all resources
- Child shares subset of parent's resources
- Parent and child share no resources
Execution options:
- Parent and child execute concurrently
- Parent waits until child terminates

System Calls for Process Creation

OS	System Call
UNIX/Linux	`fork()`, `exec()`
Windows	`CreateProcess()`

fork() - Creates exact copy of parent process

Returns 0 to child
Returns child's PID to parent
Returns -1 on error
exec() - Replaces process memory with new program

Process Termination

Process executes last statement and calls exit()
Parent may terminate child using abort() or kill()
Reasons for termination:
Normal completion
Resource limits exceeded
Memory violations
I/O failure
Parent request
Parent terminated (cascading termination)

Context Switching

When CPU switches from one process to another, the system must:

Save the state of the old process (in its PCB)
Load the saved state of the new process (from its PCB)

Context Switch Overhead

Context switch time is pure overhead (no useful work done)
Time depends on:
- Memory speed
- Number of registers to copy
- Hardware support (multiple register sets)
Typical time: 1-1000 microseconds

Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

Processes need to communicate for:

Information sharing
Computation speedup
Modularity
Convenience

Types of Processes

Independent Processes - Cannot affect or be affected by other processes
Cooperating Processes - Can affect or be affected by other processes

IPC Mechanisms

1. Shared Memory

Region of memory shared between processes
Fast communication
Requires synchronization
Producer-Consumer problem is classic example

// Shared memory example
#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
    int buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
    int in;   // Next free position
    int out;  // First full position
} shared_data;

2. Message Passing

Processes communicate by exchanging messages
Two operations: send(message) and receive(message)
Useful for distributed systems
Communication Links:
Direct vs Indirect communication
Synchronous vs Asynchronous
Automatic vs Explicit buffering
Direct Communication:

send(P, message)    // Send to process P
receive(Q, message) // Receive from process Q

Indirect Communication (Mailboxes):

send(A, message)    // Send to mailbox A
receive(A, message) // Receive from mailbox A

3. Pipes

Unidirectional communication channel
Ordinary Pipes - Parent-child communication
Named Pipes (FIFOs) - No parent-child relationship required

4. Sockets

Endpoint for communication
Identified by IP address + port number
Used for network communication

5. Signals

Asynchronous notification to process
Examples: SIGKILL, SIGTERM, SIGINT, SIGSEGV

Process Schedulers

Long-Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler)

Selects processes to be brought into ready queue
Controls degree of multiprogramming
Executes infrequently (seconds/minutes)
Should select good mix of I/O-bound and CPU-bound processes

Short-Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler)

Selects which ready process to execute next
Executes very frequently (milliseconds)
Must be very fast

Medium-Term Scheduler

Swaps processes in/out of memory
Reduces degree of multiprogramming
Used in time-sharing systems

Dispatcher

The dispatcher gives control of CPU to the process selected by scheduler.
Functions:

Context switching
Switching to user mode
Jumping to proper location to resume program
Dispatch Latency - Time taken by dispatcher to stop one process and start another

Key Formulas

Metric	Formula
Turnaround Time (TAT)	Completion Time - Arrival Time
Waiting Time (WT)	Turnaround Time - Burst Time
Response Time	First Response - Arrival Time
Throughput	Number of processes / Total time
CPU Utilization	(CPU busy time / Total time) × 100%